Abstract
This article demonstrates that Setswana proverbs enrich the concept of leadership within the Setswana culture. Some Setswana proverbs and cultural leadership principles are in synergy towards character formation, community building and competency expectations. In other words, leadership principles expressed through Setswana proverbs are categorised according to the character, community and competency in leadership. There are hundreds of proverbs in this language speaking about character formation whereby an individual takes responsibility for self-formation through community engagement based on leadership. The kgosi [king] is expected by the community to be competent in or through participative leadership style. The kgosi is a leader showing no favouritism, but is accommodative to all people regardless of their abilities and disabilities. The three Cs (Character, Community and Competency) are not ordered in priority, but for discussion purposes. The discussion starts by understanding the Setswana concept of leadership and makes conclusions by appealing to the inclusion of Setswana proverbs in all academic interdisciplinary studies as a way of decolonising education towards emancipation from religio-cultural inhibitions and stereotypes.
Contribution: This article reawakens the importance of the knowledge of African proverbs and idioms. These are invaluable tools with high potency towards the decolonisation of education including religion and philosophy in Africa. Leadership from an African perspective, especially from Setswana understanding, is accurately expressed through some Setswana proverbs. Learning leadership principles through Setswana proverbs enriches African epistemologies and ontologies.
Keywords: Setswana proverb; community; character; competency; leadership; culture.
Introduction
In line with the decolonisation project dominating both the education fields and religious formations, African proverbs are the sharp tools to express both socio-religious and eco-political perspectives. This is captured by Van Heerden (2002:464) who proffers that ‘The encounter of African culture with Christianity brings a newness, a freshness, an originality, a difference like a spice that brings a new taste to food’. Religion and culture therefore converge to make concrete life directions. These African proverbs are ‘a powerful tool for the empowerment of African people’ (Van Heerden 2002:463), regarding their worldviews and coping mechanisms in the changing world. Learning from primal history and religions enhances understanding of the current state of affairs. ‘Within South Africa, the experiences and knowledge of former colonised people must be foregrounded, their traditions must inform and shape practice’ (Du Plessis 2021:57) in such a way that the indigeneity of Africa is not discarded. A special focus in this article is proverbs in the Setswana language – one of the languages known in Southern Africa, especially in Botswana and South Africa. It is discovered that there are hundreds of proverbs in this language speaking about character formation whereby an individual takes responsibility for self-formation through community engagement based on leadership. This leadership focusing on kgosi [king] is expected by the community to be competent in or through participative leadership style. The article unravels these three leadership principles of character, community and competency, but first one has to understand the Setswana concept on leadership.
Leadership in Setswana culture
To lead [go etelela pele] is an integral part of culture as it can be observed in the Setswana socio-anthropological epistemologies such as chieftaincy, settlement patterns, clan systems, legal systems that involve some hierarchy of courts, regimentation, and various tribal laws and cultural rudiments.
The residential areas or villages divided into wards [dikgotla], often occupied by members of more than one patrilineal descent group, call for some form of leadership structures. The village chief, whose position is hereditary, is responsible to appoint ward leaders [dikgosana] in different locales or wards. This was and continues to be done through consultation with the Tribal Council. The chief or king is the paramount custodian of culture, including religion and leadership in different strata of the tribe. He or she is invested with authority to lead the tribe, and this capacity determines the potency and strength of the chief. It is what makes the chief popular. It is for this reason that Masango (2002:708) asserts: ‘Leadership has to do with someone who has commanding authority or influence within a group’. A leader is a leader by both authority and influence:
Leaders use influence to guide groups of people through a certain course of actions or towards the achievement of certain goals. In other words, leadership is goal directed, and plays a significant part in the life of a group, tribe or community. (Nahavandi 2000:26)
This enlightens us that African leaders are not in power by the ballot box or the barrel of a gun. Followers treat a leader ‘by virtue of being a king, priest or ruler chosen by virtue of the office in order to serve the nation’ (Masango 2002:708). This is further supported by the fact that an African leader is not just a cultural person, but also a religious leader. The famous African theologian, Mbiti (1977) correctly points out that leaders:
Formulated religious beliefs, they observed religious ceremonies, and rituals, they told proverbs and myths which carried religious meanings, and they evolved laws and customs which safeguarded the life of the individual and his (sic) community or villagers. (p. 102)
Leaders are the custodians of the tribe’s heritage and future. By reflecting on the past where lessons are derived in order not to repeat the same mistakes, a leader charts the way forward since letlhaku le leša le agelelwa mo go le legologolo. This proverb paints:
[A]n image drawn from the traditional way of life, of maintaining the new fence around the old one. Literally, it refers to the practice of replacing old or broken stakes with fresh new thorn branches, placed alongside the existing branches. Thus, the foundation of the fence remains intact and the new thorn gains strength from it. Figuratively, the proverb is understood by Setswana speakers to mean that young people should imbibe the wisdom, knowledge and experience of the elders while they are still alive. (Matjila 2009:265)
Leadership [boeteledipele] dominates how cultures, including religions converge to epitomise healthy livelihood within any community. A leader is judged by the success of followers. African leadership in its essence is not self-seeking, self-enriching or self-satisfying. The success of the followers is the success of the leader, hence the Setswana proverb that says ‘Kgaka-kgolo ga ke na mebala, mebala e dikgakaneng’ literally, as the ageing guineafowl, my colours are not brighter; the brightness of my colours is seen in my children. This proverb carries the rich meaning that the beauty and the splendour of leaders or parents are reflected on their followers or children. A leader sacrifices self for the sake of the followers. This is expressed in another Setswana proverb that Korwe ga ke je ke bapalela tsetse, expressing the notion that Monna o bapalela ba lapa la gagwe pele ene a ka akanya go ja. The fundamental meaning here is that ‘a responsible man will prioritise the family’s well-being first’. A leader puts the needs of the followers ahead of his or her own.
So, African boeteledipele is the embodiment of botho (ubuntu) whereby a leader is a leader by the people; that is, not because they put him or her into power, but because they achieve fulfilment through his or her leadership capacity and charisma. Toendepi and Cele (2024:1) capture this correctly that ‘The Afrocentric perspective to leading is underpinned by the Ubuntu principles that value humanism and embed collective consciousness in most societal concerns’. This means African leadership is both hierarchical and personal. Plueddemann (2009:182) speaks of this leadership as the family culture where ‘Relationships are face-to-face and power-oriented’.
Setswana proverbs on character formation
Individualism is not a common self-expression in African worldview; instead, communalism is embedded and embodied in botho philosophy which says ‘motho ke motho ka batho ba bangwe’. Thus, it is expected that an individual should take initiatives towards character formation and harmonious conduct within the community. This concurs with what Plueddemann (2009:180) states that ‘Cultures have different expectations for how leaders will behave’. In other words, a person is responsible for their character and conduct, and this has to be in synergy with community expectations. Indeed, ‘a servant-leader models the desired behaviour’ (D’Souza 2001:19). Character formation is an individual responsibility, as expressed by Collins (2001:15) that ‘the best leaders have adhered to certain basic principles, with rigour and discipline’. The first and powerful Setswana proverb expressing this notion is More mogolo go betlwa wa taola, wa motho o a ipetla [the greatest medicine is carved through the divining bones, while that of a human is self-carving], meaning a person is responsible for their own development. Resane (2023) explains this proverb as follows:
A person chooses his or her own path in life. This proverb is powerful advice for the ethics of self-responsibility. It reveals how individuals must make a choice for what they want to become. It calls for one to make a self-informed decision about one’s life. (p. 3)
Character formation is a personal responsibility. It is also proverbially expressed that Poo go bewa ya kgomo, ya motho e a ipaya [A person chooses their own path in life]. A person is expected to be assertive and rise to take up responsible leadership.
There is no doubt that even in leadership, character is the unquestionable expectation; it is a number one issue in leadership. Maxwell (2002:68) correctly points out that ‘Your gifts and skills might get you to the top, but only your character will keep you there’. In agreement, Resane (2024) further enlightens us:
It is a self-initiative for one to pattern their lifestyle for now and for future, since more mogolo is the divining bone of the highest quality of a traditional doctor. Regardless of its highest quality, its quality cannot surpass that of a human being who subjects himself under the rhetorics of self-discipline and self-initiative. (p. 2)
A leader in all spheres such as corporate, church and career takes responsibility for developing a character that is consonant with responsibilities accompanying the tasks to be achieved or completed. The success or outcomes of these tasks is dependent not only on the abilities or efforts, but also on the good character a leader possesses. More mogolo go betlwa wa taola, wa motho o a ipetla emphasises the importance of good personal qualities towards achieving success. The proverb calls for individuals to strive for personal growth to achieve their goals and aspirations. This is expressed by Wooden’s (1992:77) appeal: ‘Be more concerned with your character than with your reputation. Your character is what you really are while your reputation is merely what others think you are’. Undoubtedly, there are convergences of aspects that contribute towards an individual’s character development, especially within the community where one is planted and grows. The community’s goal is to produce or shape a leader of good character, ‘a person of moral excellence and soundness’ (Finzel 1998:35). This effort leads to the production of leaders who ‘combine high standards of ethical behaviour with genuine concern for others and fairness in the exercise of power, inspiring trust and loyalty’ (D’Souza 2001:59).
The good deeds of a leader are often realised or recalled after their death. In some cases, it becomes an axiom that the old devil is better than the new one. A Setswana proverb says Kgaka e ntsho e fofa, mebala re e bona e kotame [A person’s good deeds will only be recognised in death]. A leader must be humble and continue to exhibit good characters and perform good deeds even if they are not acknowledged by others. It is only after their tenure that their legacy is recognised. Ethical leadership with concordant character should be pursued privately and publicly. It should be taken into cognisance that ‘Kgano le kgaka, poloka ga se ya babedi’ [One you save is not guaranteed to do the same], implying that people or followers who were closer to the leader are not the guarantees that they will take the legacy further. The biblical metaphor: ‘strike the shepherd and the sheep scatter’ (Zch 13:7) signifies that if a leader is removed, chaos and havoc become a norm. Many leaders of remarkable character are betrayed by their confidants. This is part of the leadership cost to be paid.
African leadership tolerates no rivalry. Within the African leadership circles, the following proverb highlights this fact: Poopedi ga nke di bopa sope le le lengwe [You cannot have two bulls in the same kraal]. This is also expressed by another proverb that says Kgaka-pedi ga di robale mosemeng o le mongwe [Competitors cannot share the same space]. Leadership competitions always result in conflicts which lead to the threatening of rivals or elimination of the weaker ones. However, it takes a leader of character to stand up and echo sounds of peace by shouting ‘Tsie lala!’ or ‘A e nne modiga!’ This is expressed by Resane (2022) that:
Whenever tension or conflict emerges, the community leader (such as the chief, captain, headman, etc.) rises and says: ‘A e nne modiga!’ [Let there be peace!] or ‘Tsie lala!’ [Let there be order!]. This call for order is exactly like that of the Speaker of the Parliament, when there is chaotic uproar in the chamber and she calls, ‘Order!’ Both Setswana idiomatic expressions are calls for peace, quietness or calmness to prevail. (p. 4)
Setswana proverbs on community building
Batswana, like all Africans, are gregarious by nature (Kato 1975:15). They are sociable, companionable, and live in organised communities. In their communities, they have their unique leadership structures, expectations and vocabularies. Their vocabulary is idiomatic and proverbial. Proverbs such as motho ga iphetse [One cannot master everything by himself], motho ke motho ka batho [A person is a person through others], tau di senang seboka di siiwa ke none e tlhotsa [People who cannot cooperate fail to achieve even minor tasks], gaabo motho go thebe-phatswa [Charity begins at home], mmetla kgola ya borwa o e betla a lebisitse gaabo [A person will take care of home first], moenyane o pele lebone la waabo [An early arriver will guide the followers], tsie e ja ka bontsi [More hands make the job easier] and many others express their community lifestyle and emphasise the fact that singularity and individualism limit one’s potential to belong to the community and achieve success in life. Personal identity and belongingness is rooted in one’s home or family, then the community (village) automatically joins hands with that family to raise an individual. Through this, one learns that leadership is a ‘collective activity where the individual is valued as part of the community who contributes to the collective wisdom basket’ (Toendepi & Cele 2024:2). Therefore, cooperation, charity and communalism make an individual special and enable them to become fully human. An individual grows with others towards success in order to pave the way for others coming after him. As an individual learns to handle the ropes, he is dependent on others for skills and achievements.
A stranger or a visitor is regarded as a blessing in and for the community, hence the proverbs moeng goroga re je ka wena [The best food is served to please visitors], and moeng ngaka, o sidila babobodi [Visitors often bring life to those visited]. Visitors’ arrival enlightens those at home. They lead towards calmness and contentment, thus creating an atmosphere of proper decision-making and problem-solving. Visitors bring in new ideas, hence prompting hosts to offer hospitality. The hosts go the extra mile to entertain visitors, thereby awakening creativity and the spirit of botho [hospitality]. Creativity and hospitality [gasvryheid], a good Afrikaans word meaning guest freedom, are characteristics of leadership. They become moenyane o pele [first arrivers] to prepare the ways for those coming after them. This means they create a legacy for future generations to tap on their investments. These visitors are the motlhaba-mokgosi, relaying the message and paving the way for future visitors, who create the possibility of feasting as food is only in abundance when visitors are there to be entertained. These proverbs express the idea that a leader should have foresight, be a visionary and always be concerned about building a brighter future. The city dwellers who originate from rural areas regularly host newcomers from rural villages whenever they visit cities for various reasons such as business, seeking employment, and looking for a college or university registration.
African leadership is a communal leadership where kgosi ke kgosi ka morafe [A chief is a chief by the tribe]. If there is no tribe, there would be no chief! One leads by the presence of followers. Kgosi possesses some legitimate powers to influence the subordinates or subjects:
Legitimate power refers to the authority vested in a leader because of their position or role within the organisation. This power comes from the understanding that the leader has the right to influence and give orders to their subordinates. (Maphanga, Mokoena & Isabirye 2024:3)
This notion is expanded by Brin and Nehme (2019) that Afrocentric responsible leadership prioritises community interests, connectedness (togetherness) and consensus, similar to a stakeholder approach that aligns the interests of all stakeholder groups. Nkomazana and Tabalaka (2024:3), in reference to this proverbial notion, assert:
The role played by members of the society in providing the necessary checks and balances, monitoring processes and implementation of programmes is seen as an important factor for the growth of the community. (p. 3)
This kgosi is a highly respected figure by his subjects, hence the proverb lefoko la kgosi le agelwa mosako [A king’s word takes precedence]. His word is final only after deliberations and interrogations of facts or proposals. The expression here is ‘how decision-making processes and structures are put in place for strengthening governance and promotion of accountability and integrity for leaders’ (Nkomazana & Tabalaka 2024:3). Because the chief’s position is hereditary, he is always accepted as a leader because Kgosi e tsala diphera [The chief rules all his tribe regardless of their health or wisdom]. Furthermore, the kgosi is not expected to be biased when passing judgements, since kgosi thipa e sega molootsi [The king will discipline even his advisers]. One can see that the Batswana communities are strongly leadership-oriented and the life of the tribe revolves around the chief. The chief is petleka -ya -malemela gotlhe [Jack of all trades] and must be accommodative to the needs of all members of the tribe. This is expressed by the proverb that kgosi thothobolo e olela matlakala otlhe [A chief carries all burdens of his tribe]. This teaches us that a leader should be respectable [lefoko la kgosi le agelwa mosako], participative, and refrain from showing favouritism. It is true that this proverb ‘focuses on the principles of participatory leadership, which include mutual dependence, delegation and consultation’ (Nkomazana & Tabalaka 2024:4). It is true that:
Although the Afrocentric approach to responsible leadership shares similarities with other approaches, it is rooted in the interconnectedness of individuals. ‘I am because you are, and one finger cannot pick grain’, acknowledging mutual dependence and the need for cooperation. (Toendepi & Cele 2024:2)
As a community leader, the chief is the father, therefore should be confrontational, yet lead with love. In return, the subjects must pay homage to him as it is said that kgomo ga e ke e tlhaba mong wa yone [A child should always respect their parents, or a subordinate should respect the master or the leader].
There is some form of expectation that the chief may be faltering or weak, hence the proverb, e re go bona dija maaparankwe, lona malata lo itlhoboge [When the royalties collapse, followers give up life]. In other words, when the leadership is weak, the followers become hopeless. Furthermore, ngwana wa kgwale ithute molodi, o gopole motlhang malata a ile [Learn what you need to know to survive while things are no more well]. These proverbs emphasise the fact that leadership should be future-oriented. Leaders should think more of tomorrow than today. A good leader invests today for tomorrow’s survival.
In African communities, parenting is regarded as a collective responsibility. The growth of an individual is not the sole responsibility of a set of two parents, but the responsibility of a community. The proverb, ngwana kgetsi ya tsie o a tshwaraganelwa [It takes a village to raise a child] is popular among many African cultures. This proverb is similar to another Setswana proverb that says, Ngwana sejo o a tlhakanelwa [A child is a food around which we all gather]. It implies that the upbringing of a child is a communal responsibility and not an individual responsibility.
Children [Bana {plural}; ngwana {singular}] play a special role in Setswana communities. This is demonstrated by the values attached to children through many proverbs. Although children’s upbringing is a community project, the home where they are born and reared is central to their development. Proverbs like bana ba tadi ba bonwa ka mereto [The behaviour of the children reflects the parents’ attitudes or behaviour] highlight this fact. This demonstrates that children are the replica of their parents, not only physically but also behaviourally. Because children in their infancy are naïve and vulnerable, as expressed in Bana mamphorwana maatlhamela babolai [Children do not have the capacity to differentiate good people from bad ones], Motswana [Setswana speaking person] learns that discernment is important towards maturity where one learns bad from good. Discernment is one of the qualities of leadership whereby a leader is expected to be visionary enough to see what is detrimental or beneficial to his followers.
A metaphor of children is used to emphasise the importance of teamwork. The proverb says Bana ba tshipa ba tsaya mmila o le mongwe, ba kgaoganngwa ke dira tsa megotlha [A team that does not work together gets easily divided]. Balenga (2017) is correct that:
Partnership, collaboration and unity put two or more minds at work so that what could not be done by one is done by the other and vice-versa … Unity almost always leads to success. (p. 276)
Togetherness, unity, and companionship are the expressions of community where cooperation is inevitable, and this goes with sharing since bana ba motho ba kgaogana tlhogwana ya tsie [Siblings share their parents’ provision or grant]. These proverbs demonstrate that children are an integral part of the community, and they are illustrated as lessons to teach communal togetherness and collective responsibility.
Setswana proverbs on leadership competency
Leadership competencies include knowledge, skills, and abilities essential for effective leadership capacity (McCall, Lombardo & Morrison 1988). Leadership quality in Africa is considered hereditarily gained or skilfully acquired. Colloquially, a leader is born, and a leader is made. The Setswana proverb Ntšwanyana ya maitaa sebatana e bonwa mabotobotong [children show their talent from a very young age] emphasises the importance of discerning the inherent leadership qualities manifested during a child’s infancy. One of the leadership competencies is the prudence to discern leadership qualities in followers. A leader who identifies these inherent leadership qualities embarks on lore lo ojwa le sa le metsi [children need to be groomed from a young age], implying that while emerging leaders are still teachable and trainable, a leader must use that opportunity to groom them.
African leadership revolves around royalty, where the king or the chief is seen as a central figure of the nation or tribe. People’s lives revolve around the king; hence some Setswana proverbs on leadership are about kgosi [king or chief]. For instance, the proverb Kgosi thothobolo e ola matlakala [A king carries all burdens of his nation] implies that a leader leads all their followers regardless of their shortcomings. This means a leader embraces the followers regardless of their weaknesses or even their deformities. There is therefore some cost to pay in leadership, and this cost goes with criticism. Your critiques as a leader are also your people or team members. After all, kgosi e tsala diphera [The king rules all his subjects regardless of their health or wisdom]. This is expressed by Greenleaf (2002) that:
People grow taller when those who lead them empathise and when they are accepted for what they are, even though their performance may be judged critically in terms of what they are capable of doing. Leaders who empathise and who fully accept those who go with them on this basis are more likely to be trusted. (p. 35)
The followers or subordinates need to be led without any discrimination. A leader shows no favouritism. The king disciplines even his advisers. Disciplinary measures are applied to even those closer to the leader, as nobody is above the law. When people are content, they automatically comply or obey the leader’s directives because they know that Lefoko la kgosi le agelwa mosako [A king’s word takes precedence]. The leader’s directives are followed unreservedly and unquestioningly.
The proverbs on kgosi teach the importance of competency in leadership. A king must rule well to gain the confidence of his subjects. A leader must lead well to win the favour of subordinates. Kgosi as a leader is expected to prioritise the ‘well-being of followers and underlines the need for social responsibility to bring about positive change’ (Bleeker, Barkhuizen & Braine 2024:3). A kgosi is not a dictator, an autocrat, or a tyrant. He is the father of the nation which is made of people with different abilities and disabilities. He is a thothobolo [dump site] and therefore o ola matlakala [He gathers and contains all sorts of dirt or rubbish]. His subjects with their needs and concerns are all his people, and they expect to be served well by him. Expectations here are that the ‘nobodies’ of today are the ‘somebodies’ of tomorrow, and therefore both need to be led and guided well by a competent leader who shows no favouritism. This attitude of leadership embraces the fact that ‘It is part of the enigma of human nature that the “typical” person – immature, stumbling, inept, lazy – is capable of great dedication and heroism if wisely led’ (Greenleaf 2002:35). The significant competency here is the ability to treat all people equally and regard them as subjects of value. It is the indiscriminate attitude that is vital to leadership that values people as assets, not only as liabilities or taxing subjects. This anomaly is common in African politics where politicians disregard people but plead for their votes in the ballot boxes during election campaigns. They are proverbially expressed as Seila kgaka, senwa moro [You hate a guinea fowl meat, but enjoys or appreciate its gravy], basically meaning to love what you get but not where it comes from. It is an attitude of ‘I don’t care about you, but I need your support or vote’. This is a poor leadership and not in harmony with African botho (Sesotho) of motho ke motho ka batho ba bangwe or ubuntu’s’ (isiNguni) umuntu ngu muntu ngabantu. This demonstrates that ‘a proverb in African tradition is not only didactic saying, it is a storehouse of native wisdom and philosophy’ (Lugira 1979:57). This qualifies proverbs to be applied in interdisciplinary studies, because as per Odaga (1984:68) ‘Proverbs touch on every aspect of the life of the people who create them. There are proverbs on political, social, educational, religious and economic issues’.
Conclusion
Culture is always a starting point for conceptualisation of the context in which an individual finds self-actualisation. In the process of decolonisation, the fundamental and the underlying reality remains that education at all levels cannot be undertaken, studied and taught in or through the Western lenses. Driving the expected educational outcomes is feasible by examining idiomatic or proverbial expressions in African culture, especially Setswana proverbs as they convey the common truth to make sense of some universal facts or realities, especially in the area of leadership. They teach important lessons, thereby honing behaviours that promote good leadership and noble characters in individuals. Visions, concepts, experiences and emotions are always captured through proverbs and they make an intended meaning exact and captivating. These expressions are humane and carry no vulgar tones, eliminating supremacist attitudes towards others or any form of condescending. These proverbs impart wisdom, connecting the past and the present, promoting guidance to cope with the complexities of life and teaching means of survival, thereby building a strong community characterised by resilience and cohesiveness.
As an important tool of decolonisation, proverbs prove to stand the test of time. They are never outdated, outmoded or redundant. Their usage and application remain useful in the modern times of cultural decentering. The appeal is to engage proverbs to gain an in-depth understanding of leadership from African indigenous knowledge, especially from Setswana perspectives. The academia should, if intending to decolonise both education and religion, embark on the usage of African proverbs to drive points home. The epistemological shifts emphasise human experience, history, culture and the context. Academics need to incorporate African epistemic perspectives and knowledge from the African rich epistemologies and ontologies. Eurocentric epistemologies that marginalise African knowledge that is expressed through proverbs and idioms should be dismantled through the reawakening of indigenous knowledge. Character formation, communalism and leadership competencies are all expressed and taught proverbially and idiomatically.
Acknowledgements
Competing interests
The author declares that they have no financial or personal relationships that may have inappropriately influenced them in writing this article.
Author’s contribution
K.T.R. is the sole author of this research article.
Ethical considerations
This article does not contain any studies involving human participants performed by the author.
Funding information
This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial or not-for-profit sectors.
Data availability
Data sharing is not applicable to this article as no new data were created or analysed in this study.
Disclaimer
The views and opinions expressed in this article are those of the author and are the product of professional research. It does not necessarily reflect the official policy or position of any affiliated institution, funder, agency, or that of the publisher. The author is responsible for this article’s results, findings, and content.
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